see also: The History of the Intoxicant Use of Marihuana
China
The oldest known therapeutic description Of cannabis was by the Emperor Shen-Nung in the 28th
century B.C. in China, where the plant had long been grown for fiber. He prescribed cannabis for
beri-beri, constipation, "female weakness," gout, malaria, rheumatism and absentmindedness
(Bloomquist, 1968: 19).
Egypt
In Egypt, in the 20th century B.C., cannabis was used to treat sore eyes. Additional medical usage
was not reported until much later. India Prior to the 10th century B.C., bhang, a cannabis preparation,
was used as an anesthetic and antiphlegmatic in India. In the second century A.D., a Chinese physician,
Hoa-Tho, prescribed it as an analgesic in surgical procedures (Mikuriya, 1969: 34). From the 10th
century B.C. up to 1945 (and even to the present time), cannabis has been used in India to treat
a wide variety of human maladies.
The drug is highly regarded by some medical practitioners in that country. The religious use of
cannabis in India is thought to have preceded its medical use (Blum and Associates, II, 1969:
73; Snyder, 1970: 125). The religious use of cannabis is to help "the user to free
his mind from worldly distractions and to concentrate on the Supreme Being" (Barber,
1970: 80).
Cannabis is used in Hindu and Sikh temples and at Mohammedan shrines. Besides using the drug as
an aid to meditation, it is also used to overcome hunger and thirst by the religious mendicants.
In Nepal, it is distributed on certain feast days at the temples of all Shiva followers
(Blum & Associates, 1969, 11: 63). The Hindus spoke of the drug as the "heavenly guide,"
"the soother of grief." Considered holy, it was described as a sacred grass during
the Vedic period (Fort, 1969: 15).
A reference to cannabis in Hindu scriptures is the following:To the Hindu the hemp plant
is holy. A guardian lives in bhang ... Bhang is the joy giver, the sky filer, the heavenly guide,
the poor man's heaven, the soother of grief ... No god or man is as good as the religious drinker
of Mang. The students of the scriptures of Benares are given bhang before they sit to study. At
Benares, Ujjain and other holy places, yogis take deep draughts of Mang that they may center their
thoughts on the Eternal . . . By the help of Mang ascetics pass days without food or drink. The
supporting power of Mang has brought many a Hindu family safe through the miseries of famine
(Snyder, 1970: 125).
Greece
In ancient Greece, cannabis was used as a remedy for earache, edema, and inflammation
(Robinson, 1946: 382-383).
Africa
Cannabis was used in Africa to restore appetite and to relieve pain of hemorrhoids, its
antiseptic uses were also known to certain African native tribes (O'Shaughnessy, 1842:
431). Various other uses, in a number of countries, included the treatment of tetanus, hydrophobia,
delirium tremens, infantile convulsions, neuralgia and other nervous disorders, cholera, menorrhagia,
rheumatism, hay fever, asthma, skin diseases, and protracted labor during childbirth.
The 19th Century
Documents of the 19th century report on the use of cannabis to control diarrhea in cholera and
to stimulate appetite. In his reports of the late 1830's and early 1840's, O'Shaughnessy (1842:
431) stated that tetanus could be arrested and cured when treated with extra large doses
of cannabis.
John Bell, M.D., Boston, reported enthusiastically in 1857, about the effects of cannabis in the
control of mental and emotional disorders as opposed to the use of "moral discipline"
to restrain the mentally ill. Similarly, in 1858, Moureau. de Tours reported several case
histories of manic and depressive disorders treated with hashish (Walton, 1938: 3).
The Ohio State Medical Society's Committee on Cannabis Indica, convened in 1860, reported that
their respondents claimed cannabis successfully treated neuralgic pain, dysmenorhea, uterine
hemorrhage, hysteria, delirium tremens, mania, palsy, whooping cough, infantile convulsions, asthma,
gonorrhea, nervous rheumatism, chronic bronchitis, muscular spasms, tetanus, epilepsy and appetite
stimulation (McMeens, 1860: 1). The India Hemp Commission (1894: 174) likewise was informed
of similar medicinal uses for cannabis.
Specific reports included the use of cannabis as an analgesic, a restorer of energy, a hemostat,
an ecbolic, and an antidiaretic. Cannabis was also mentioned as an aid in treating hay fever,
cholera, dysentery, gonorrhea, diabetes, impotence, urinary incontinence, swelling of the testicles,
granulation of open sores, and chronic ulcers. Other beneficial effects attributed to cannabis
were prevention of insomnia, relief of anxiety, protection against cholera, alleviation of hunger
and as an aid to concentration of attention.
Medical uses in the 20th Century
Despite the fact that marihuana was made illegal in the United States in 1937, research has continued
on the medical uses of marihuana. The findings include various possible medical applications of
cannabis and its chemical derivatives.
One of the most recent and interesting findings (Frank, 1972) concerns the effect of cannabis
in reducing intraocular pressure. It was found that as the dose of marihuana increased, the pressure
within the eye decreased by up to 30%. This occurred in normal persons as well as in those with
glaucoma, a disease of the eye in which increased intraocular pressure may cause blindness. Much
more research is necessary in connection with this experimental clinical finding before final
judgment can be passed on such a possible therapeutic value.
During the past 20 years in western medicine, marihuana has been assigned antibiotic activity;
as a result, several studies relating to this possibility have been undertaken. H. B. M. Murphy
(1963: 20) reported investigations in Eastern Europe. He stated that "it is alleged
to be active against gram positive organisms at 1/100,000 dilution, but to be largely inactivated
by plasma, so that prospects for its use appear to be, confined to E. N. T. (ear, nose and throat)
and skin infections."
Dr. J. Kabelikovi (1952: 500-503) and his coworkers carried out tests on rats, which were
similar to tests carried out with penicillin in vitro. The alcohol extract of cannabis was bacterially
effective against many gram-positive and one gram-negative microorganisms. It was also found that
a paste form of external application was successful.
According to Kabelikovi, "from a study of 2,000 herbs by Czechoslovakian scientists it was
found that cannabis indica (the Indian Hemp) was the most promising in the realm of antibiotics."
In a 1959 publication of Pharmacie, Krejci stated: "From the flowering tips and leaves
of hemp, cannabis sativa var indica bred in Middle Europe, were extracted a phenol and an acid
fraction. From the acid fraction, two acids were obtained, of which one preserved its antibiotic
properties" (p. 349).
In another Czechoslovakian publication, Krejci (1961: 1351-1353) referred to two additional samples
with antibiotic activity. Sample I in Fig. 1 has been sufficiently identified as cannabidiolic
acid and sample 9 as cannabidiol. Both fractions show antibiotic activity. The results of tests
lead us to conclude that the antibacterial action of cannabis sativa is not identical to the hashish
effect found, for example, in tetrahydrocannabinol. However, it was established that cannabis
sativa is effective as an antibiotic for local infections.
Kabelik, Krejci, and Santavy (1960: 13) include in "Cannabis as a Medicant" the various
microorganisms against which cannabis is effective. Proof could be furnished that the cannabis
extracts produce a very satisfactory antibacterial effect upon the following microbes: staphylococcus
pyogenes aureus, steptococcus alpha haemolyticus, streptococcus beta haemolyticus, enterococcus,
diplococcus pneumonia, B. anthracis, and corynebacterium diptheriae i.e., all of them gram-positive
microorganisms. Noteworthy is the effect upon staphylococcus aureaus strains, which are resistant
to penicillin and to other antibiotics. These authors also mentioned that E. coli (gramnegative
bacteria) were tested and found to be resistant to the cannabis extract.
One of the conclusions was "the possibility of utilizing the antibiotics locally without
any danger of producing resistant strains to other antibiotics administered at the same time throughout
treatment" (Kabelik, et al., 1960: 13). Veliky and Genest in "Suspension Culture of
Cannabis Sativa," (1970) reported that "the ethanol extract of cultured cells exhibited
antibiotic activity against Bacillus megatherium, staphlococcus aureaus and escherichia coli"
(p. 493).
Other reports said that "a pronounced antibiotic effect has been observed in South America,
where fresh leaves, after being ground, are used as a poultice for furuncles, and in folk medicine
in Europe for treatment of erysipelas" (Kabelik, et al., 1960: 8). This section on the -antibiotic
uses of cannabis concludes with a summary of several reports from various countries. In Pharmacopee
Arabe: "The ground-up seeds are mixed with bread for people with tuberculosis" (Andrews
and Vinkenoog, 1967: 145). In Czechoslovakia: "A preparation from seed pulp was . . . introduced
by Sirek to act as a roborant diet in treatment of tuberculosis" (Kabelik, 1960: 8). "In
Southern Rhodesia the plant is used as an African remedy for malaria, anthrax, sepsis, black water
fever, dysentery, blood-poisoning, tropical quinine-malarial haemoglobinuria, and a wart medicine"
(Watt, 1961: 13).
In Argentina: Cannabis is considered a real panacea for tetanus, colic, gastralgia, swelling of
the liver, gonorrhoea, sterility, impotency, abortion, tuberculosis of the lungs and asthma ...
even the root-bark has been collected in spring, and employed as a febrifuge, tonic, for treatment
of dysentery and gastralgia, either pulverized or in form of decoctions. The root when ground
and applied to burns is said to relieve pain. Oil from the seeds has been frequently used even
in treatment of cancer . . . (Kabelik, 1960: 8).
In 1949, Davis and Ramsey reported a study of the effect of THC on epileptic children. "The
demonstration of anticonvulsant activity of the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) congeners by laboratory
tests (Loewe and Goodman, Federation Proc., 6: 3521 1947) prompted clinical trial in five institutionalized
epileptic children" (David and Ramsey, 1949: 284-285). Of these five children, all had severe
symptomatic grand mal epilepsy with mental retardation; three also had cerebral palsy; and three
had focal seizure activity. The EEG tracings were reported to be grossly abnormal in all five
children. The results after treatment with homologues of THC, were reported as follows: Three
children-responded at least as well as to previous therapy. Fourth child-almost completely seizure
free. Fifth child-entirely seizure free. As a result of their study, David and Ramsey (1949: 284-285)
felt that "the cannabinols herein reported deserve further trial in non-institutionalized
epileptics."
Dr. Vansim of Edgewood Arsenal has written in a recently published book "Psychotomimetic
Drugs," that the synthetic preparations of cannabis are of interest. There are three areas
where they may be of definite use in medicine (Efron, 1969: 333-334). One concerns the use of
a cannabis analogue which Dr. Walter S. Loewe reported very effective in preventing grand mal
seizures if given in small doses. The second use refers to cannabis as an antidepressant. Straub
(Walton, 1938: 3), Adams (1942: 726-727), and Stockings (1947, 920-922) point to the possible
use of cannabis and cannabis analogues in relieving dysphoria in depressed patients.
Other authors (Parker and Wrigley, 1950: 278-279) had lesser success but recommended further research
in this field. A report from London in 1968 suggests that cannabis treats the symptoms and not
the cause by focusing the user's attention on his anxieties and pains without helping him to resolve
them (Report by the Advisory Committee, 1968: 11). The third use is described by Douthwaite, who
used hashish in 1947 "for reducing of anxiety and tension in patients with duodenal ulcer"
(Pond, 1948: 279). A report in a 1965 issue of Medical News ("Cardiac Glycocides," p.
6) suggests cannabis as treatment for a specific form of malignancy. Cannabis is recognized as
an appetite stimulant, which suggests that the drug might be useful in the treatment of pathological
loss of appetite known as anorexia nervosa (Grinspoon, 1969: 21).
Similar symptoms exist in terminal cancer patients who, when treated with cannabis over a short
period of time, demonstrated stimulation of appetite, euphoria, increased sense of well-being,
mild analgesia and an indifference to pain which reduced the need for opiates (DHEW, 1971: 11).
Cannabis has been recently proposed as an adjunct in the treatment of alcoholics and drug addicts.
Roger Adams (1942: 726-727) and Todd Mikuriya (1970a: 187-191) noted that the substitution of
smoked cannabis for alcohol may have rehabilitative value for certain alcoholics. Regarding the
use of cannabis analogue in the treatment of drug, alcohol and depressive state withdrawal, Thompson
and Proctor (1953: 520523) report the following: Depressive States: 20 cases of neurotic depression-4
improved (20%) 6 cases of psychotic depression-none improved (00%) Post-Alcoholic Cases: 70 cases--59
reported clinical alleviation of symptoms (84%) Drug Cases: 6 cases of barbiturate addiction-4
reported amelioration of symptoms (66%) 4 cases of dilaudid addiction-3 reported alleviation (75%)
2 cases of pantopan and one paregoric addiction-all reported smooth withdrawal (100%) 12 cases
of Demerol addiction-10 withdrawals in one week (83%) 6 cases of morphine addiction-2 withdrawals
without unpleasant symptoms (33%)
The doctors concluded that "Pyrahexyl (a synthetic cannabis-like drug) and related compounds
are beneficial in the treatment of withdrawal symptoms from the use of alcohol to a marked degree,
and in the treatment of withdrawal symptoms from the use of opiates to a less marked, but still
significant degree" (Thompson & Proctor, 1953:520-523). Drs. Allentuck and Bowman (1942)
undertook a study of the use of marihuana in the morphine abstinence syndrome. They stated: A
series of cases were selected from among drug addicts undergoing treatment. . . . Comparative
results were chartered for the gradual withdrawal, total withdrawal, and marihuana derivative
substitution, as methods of treatment. . . . 49 subjects were studied. The results in general,
although still inconclusive, suggest that the marihuana substitution method ameliorated or eliminated
(the symptoms) sooner, the patient was in a better frame of mind, his spirits elevated, his physical
condition was more rapidly rehabilitated, and he expressed a wish to resume his occupation sooner
(p. 250).
In his study of the medical application of cannabis for Mayor LaGuardia's committee, Dr. Samuel
Allentuck reported "favorable results in treating withdrawal of opiate addicts with tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC), a powerful purified product of the hemp plants" (Mikuriya, 1969: 38). Roger Adams'
detailed studies, as reported by Dr. C. K. Himmelsbach in his 1944 article "Treatment of
the Morphine Abstinence Syndrome with a Synthetic Cannabis-Like Compound" (1944:26), indicated
that "withdrawal manifestations were considered to be mild.
The reported therapeutic value of marihuana was attributed to improved appetite, greater sleep,
euphoria, and a reduction of the intensity or elimination of abstinence phenomena." Himmelsbach,
however, had lesser success when he studied the effect of a "pyrahexyl" compound on
the morphine abstinence syndrome, as noted by his conclusions that: (1) Pyrahexyl compound appears
to possess considerable cannabis-like effect when administered orally, but little or none when
given intramuscularly. (2) When given by mouth In definitely effective amounts pyrahexyl compound
had no appreciable ameliorative effect on the opiate abstinence syndrome (P. 29).
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